Ch1

__**Chronology/Timeline**__  **3,000,000+ years ago:** //australopithecines//, “southerne ape-like creatures” or //paranthropoi//, “next to humans” found that significantly blur the lines between humans and nonhumans; remains of Lucy, a 3-foot tall, bipedal individual found in Hadar, Ethiopia in East Africa. Finds can date back as far as 6 million years ago, with footprints 3.7 million years old and tools 2.5 million years old. Lucy lived in family groups, and died over 3 million years ago.


 * 2,500,000 years ago:** //Homo habilis//, “handy”; toolmakers with larger brains – double the size of its predecessors


 * 1,500,000 years ago:** //Homo erectus// “standing upright”; carved symmetrical tools and weapons


 * 800,000 years ago:** variant //Homo ergaster//, “workman”; stacked bones of their dead in reverence


 * 150,000 years ago:** //Homo sapiens// found in East Africa; the start of human evolution, DNA reveals ancestry here starting with Eve. About 20,000 //Homo sapiens// lived in this region (Herto, Ethiopia); they cooked and created tools, spears, and weapons with fire. 3 large skulls found, 1 child and 2 adults, stripped of flesh and polished after death (a sign of culture) along with a butchered hippopotamus. Eve’s homeland was grasslands and woodlands. Climate changes, population growth, and food shortage are all possible reasons for migration


 * 100,000 years ago:** first //Homo sapiens// migrate out of Africa to the Middle East; colonization fails until 40,000 years later


 * 67,000 years ago:** first //Homo sapiens// in China


 * 60,000 years ago:** reestablishment of //Homo sapiens// in the Middle East


 * 50,000 years ago:** first //Homo sapiens// in Australia; arrived in boats


 * 40,000 years ago:** first //Homo sapiens// in Europe


 * 30,000 years ago:** //Homo neanderthalensis// vanishes. a.k.a. Neanderthals coexisted with //Homo sapiens// for about 100,000 years; had a similar appearance to //Homo sapiens// but with a larger brain and a distinctive vocal tract. Both had similar hunts, habitats, tools, societies, foods, customs and rites, reverence for dead, and religious bases. Humans today have no ancestry with neanderthals


 * 18,000 years ago:** //Homo floresiensis//, found in the island of Flores in Indonesia. A dwarfishly tiny woman with small brain, a “hobbit.” Her bones were rotted and her teether were mashed

**15,000 years ago:** first //Homo sapiens// in the Americas

 - Hunters could be responsible - Or vast climatic changes affected the habitats and ecology of animals || - 12,500 year-old dwelling || Outline__
 * 13,000 B.C.E || Pg25 || First Arrivals to American hemisphere || - humans followed corridors between walls of ice or along narrow shores away from glaciers ||
 * 10K yrs ago || Pg25 || Extinctions of large animals (mammoth, giant sloth etc ||
 * 1970s || Pg25 || Early sites of human habitations found in eastern U.S. || - 15,000 year-old basketwork and tools made with fine flints
 * 12K yrs ago || Pg26 || Northern Germany || - Sacrificed a reindeer by deliberately weighting them with stones sewn into their stomachs and drowning them in a lake ||
 * 8K yrs ago || pg26 || Skateholm in Sweden || - Hunters found the largest known settlement of the era: winter camp with 87 different species that inhabitants ate ||
 * 4K yrs ago || pg26 || Inuits invented blubber-filled soapstone lamp || - Able to follow big game beyond the tundra and into the darkness ||
 * 1K yrs ago || Pg26 || Inuits disappeared || - Migrants from Arctic Ocean replaced them ||
 * 12K yrs ago || Pg26 || Foragers colonized dense, tropical forests || - Tropical forests had been more environmentally diverse toward the end of the Ice Age then nowadays ||
 * 14K yrs ago || pg27 || Bushmen or San occupied southern Africa’s Kalahari Desert || - Because it was so dry and it hardly rained, people watched for rare signs of rain and hurry to gather the vegetation that accompanies it; plant foods supplied 30 percent of their sustenance ||
 * __media type="custom" key="4332845"

 ** __I__. So You Think You’re Human A. Human Evolution 1. When does the story of humankind begin? 2. Homo habilis (handy) – 2.5 million years ago a. Made axes from stones b. Had larger brain than earlier predecessors 3. Homo erectus (standing upright) – 1.5 million years ago a. Carved symmetrical flints b. Most anthropologists believed that they were the first humans 4. Homo ergaster (workman) – 800,000 years ago a. Stacked the bones of the dead 5. Australopithecines (southern ape-like creatures) a. Were originally thought of as “nonhuman” or “prehuman” b. Lucy was found in 1974 and had died about 3 million years ago 6. Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthals) – 30,000 years ago a. Brains were larger than those of Homo sapiens b. Coexisted with Homo sapiens for about 100,000 years c. Some paleoanthropologists deny that Neanderthals were humans 7. Homo floresiensis – 18,000 years ago a. In 2004, excavators found a “dwarfish” looking woman in Indonesia b. Though they had “chimp-sized” brains, they made some of the tools that early Homo sapiens made; showing that having a bigger brain doesn’t mean that it’s a smarter brain II. Out of Africa A. Peopling the Old World 1. “Eve” – a mother from East Africa, our last common ancestor, who lived about 150,000 years ago a. Found in 2003 in Ethiopia 2. Why did they want to move? 3. They moved to different, challenging environments where they were ill suited 4. They migrated to the Middle East and China, the Australia, Europe, and the Americas

  A. Deep Cave Art B. Technology of the Cave Art C. Elegance of Design A. Ice Age – //Last great era of __globalization__// B.//__Material Culture__// – concrete objects people create A. //Symbolic Systems// B. //Spiritual Systems// C. //Power Class – deducted from the inequalities in burial// A. New World was the last part of the planet that the //Homo Sapiens// peopled A. Ice Cap Retreat – Hunters Go North Also B. Skatehom, Sweden – Hunters founded largest known settlement of the era C. Inuit – most persistent followers of the ice D. Climate Change Trapped Other Foraging People E. Two Methods of Adaptation A. Most societies abandoned foraging and adopted farming and herding B. Disappearance of the Foraging Lifestyle of the //Homo Sapien//
 * __//Ice-Age Art//__**
 * 1) Art has survived because they were made in deep caves which were not disturbed
 * 2) 50 cave complexes – 1000s of painting animals and smaller works
 * 3) Most prehistoric art found in N Spain and SW France
 * 1) Three different colors of ochre (mineral) – red, brown, and yello
 * 2) Palette mixed from colors of ochre and animal fat
 * 3) Applied with wood bone, and animal hair
 * 1) Ivory sculptures of 30,000 yr. old arched-neck horses
 * 2) Female portraits over 20,000 yrs. old in Moravia
 * 3) Clay models of bears, dogs, and women fired 27,000 yrs. ago
 * 4) Four painted rock slabs from Namibia in SW Africa – 26,000 yrs. old
 * 5) Much has been lost because of erosion and damage
 * __//Ice Age Culture and Society//__**
 * 1) Key elements of culture were the same all over the inhabited world
 * 2) Hunter-gatherer economy with similar technology, similar food, similar material culture, and similar religion
 * 1) People who hunted mammoths 20,000 years ago built dome-shaped dwelling of mammoth bones
 * 2) Reconstructions of mammoth nature
 * //Assertions about Aspects of Ice-Age Life//**
 * 1) No writing, only highly expressive drawings
 * 2) Recurring gestures and postures
 * 3) Includes numbers – signified by dots and notches
 * 4) Flat bone inscribed with the crescents and circles of the moon phases – prehistoric calendar
 * 1) red ochre was applied in burial, maybe as a offering or symbol of blood
 * 2) shamans communicate with gods and the dead; state induced by drugs or dancing and drumming
 * 1) Cemetary in Sunghir (near Moscow) – high status men and children
 * 2) High status people were buried with material goods – cap sewn with fox teeth, ivory bracelets, animal carvings, wrought weapons, ivory beads
 * 3) Society marked leaders from boyhood or maybe infancy
 * 4) Evidence of huge feasts being made in Spain as an alliance-making between communities;strengthen society and power of those who controlled the food at feasts
 * __//Peopling the New World//__**
 * 1) Formerly dominant theory – gap opened between glaciers towards the end of the Ice Age; hunters crossed the land link between N America and Asia (Bering Strait)
 * 2) Evidence proves that colonists came at different times – bringing different cultures
 * 3) First came the cold settlers, then with the extinction of the mammoth, giant sloth, and at least 35 other species, they begin to move south
 * 4) There is evidence of human inhabitant s in the New World (dental bites in lumps of seaweed and footprints in the clay lining of a pit)
 * __//SURVIVAL OF THE FORAGERS//__**
 * 1) N Germany, people sacrificed reindeer by weighing them with rocks and drowning them
 * 2) 1,000 yrs. later – Yorkshire, England – left a well-preserved camp at Starr Carr (had game for hunting)
 * 1) 87 different animal species roamed (trapped fish, netting seabirds, etc.)
 * 2) Moved further north in the summer
 * 1) Invented the blubber-filled soapstone lamp
 * 2) Allowed them to follow big game beyond the tundra and into the darkness
 * 3) Tracked the musk ox to the shore of the ocean on its winter migrations, when its fur is thickest and its fat most plentiful </li
 * 4) This way of life persisted until the late 20th century
 * Forests – with acorns
 * Lakes and Rivers full of aquatic life
 * New World prairies – stocks of bison
 * 1) Thinly dispersed groups had to create networks – interdependence
 * 2) Inhabitants had to develop “orally transmitted science” – accurate and extensive knowledge about their habitat
 * __//In Perspective: After the Ice//__**
 * 1) The Inuit remain faithful to their hunting tradition
 * 2) Most Old World have abandoned it
 * 3) Some hunting cultures still cling to the old ways – reindeering herding in Scandinavia
 * 1) Ancestors were scavengers – foraging was reliable and rewarding
 * 2) Fed people through every climate change
 * Why did people abandon foraging**
 * Why did foragers become farmers?**

 Pages 13-20 Migration, Population, and Social Change to Ice Age Art (1) Migration changed the interaction of people with one another, other species, and the environment. How? A. Food Advantages a. increased range of food availability b. cooking with fire made food easier to digest Evidence
 * I. Migration, Population, and Social Change**
 * R. Wrangham, paleoanthropologist, argued the date that “fire-fueled cooking” started 2 million years ago, because of the shapes of teeth morphing
 * Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, scientist, and Abbe Henri Breuil, archaeologist identified the Zhoukhoudian. They argued over use of fire, whether it was a controlled fire or not.

B. Evolutionary views on War a. “war is natural to humankind” (14) b. Margaret Mead, anthropologist, disputed that war was an invention c. settled communities fought over territories and resources Evidence
 * 11,000 years ago, battle at Jebel Sahaba near border of Egypt and Sudan
 * Jane Goodall observed warfare in chimpanzees and related to how human splinter groups must move to safety

C. Men and Women’s roles a. males bonded with each other over competition b. women valued more for reproduction purposes c. “hunting. . .strengthened male dominance” (16) d. migrating groups found ways for more women to reproduce e. women tended to have a more gathering role

(1) migrating people searched for climate change (2) Biospheres-Earth tilted, melting ice caps a. Europe was tundra, “treeless region with permanently frozen subsoil” or coniferous forests (16) b. central Eurasia, tundra c. Mediterranean, steppe which is a dry plain with scrub grasses d. New World, tundra and coniferous forests
 * II. The Last Great Ice Age**

A. Ice Age Hunters a. hunters killed species in large numbers by directing them b. 20,000 years ago, invention of bow and arrow quickened extinction of other species c. size of community depended on available sources B. Art a. Ice-Age Affluence, large amount of nutrition and days of leisure, instilled observation of nature and era of art Evidence
 * Venus of Willendorf-30,000 years old, located in Germany, plump carving of female figure believed to be a goddess or ruler
 * Venus of Laussel-20,000 years ago, in central France, represents admiration for indulgence

__ID Terms__
 * Evolution** is the change in the gene pool of a population from generation to generation by such processes as mutation, natural selection, and genetic drift. This is important because evolution makes it where we cannot find any transforming moment in the past where humankind began. Species so like ourselves preceded us in the evolutionary record, that if we were to meet members of them today, we should probably embrace some of them as fellow humans, and puzzle over how to treat others.

-New technologies may have empowered humans to migrate -New stress may have drove humans to migrate -Food shortages -Ecological Disasters -Warfare It is important to understand human migration because it tells us how, when and why humans left their homes. By knowing this we can consider what we’ll have to do to survive in the future if we are faced with any of te key factors that forced ancient humans to migrate. By Colton Siegmund
 * Key Factors of Human Migration:**




 * Material Culture**: Material cultures are the objects that are made and used by a culture. They are used by archaeologists to get a better understanding of a civilizations ideals, actions, and way of life. Theya re significant to history as a major source for gaining knowledge about a people or culture and without them most ancient history would be unknown to us.


 * Shaman:** A shaman is a religious figure who is believed to have access to the spirit world and would attain this in various ways across certain cultures either through drugs and music or dressing as the spirit involved. They would have advanced status in a society and could challenge leaders. A shaman would not necessarily be the strongest of the group, but those who were thought to be spiritual. This opened the gate for new leadership to arise from ice age cultures preventing physical strength from being the only factor in a leader.
 * By Phillip Diffley**

Anthropology, the study of human beings, provides an account of humans and their nature in the past and present. Not only does it provide a background of humans but provides an entire account of them, culturally, biologically, socially, ect. While anthropology is the study of all human beings, Paleoanthropology is the study of prehistoric humans and their ancestors. It let’s us see where we came from, which species are humans, and helps us figure out where humans began. Paleoanthropologists are specialists responsible for both answering and asking the question about which species are humans.
 * Paleoanthropologists/Paleoanthropology**

Dan Johansen, an archaeologist, discovered an australopithecine in 1974 in Hadar in Ethiopia in east Africa of a 3 million year old, three feet tall skeleton named Lucy. Her characteristics and those of her kind were thought to only belong to later species of //Homo//. He found bipedal footsteps near the sight of Lucy, proving that her kind walked on two legs. His discovery confirmed that australopithecines weren’t nonhumans nor prehumans because of their similar characteristics to //Homo//. If it wasn’t for Dan’s discovery, there might still be a dividing line between species like //Homo//and australopithecines because they resembled humans much less. Lucy was in a way closer to humans than any nonhuman creature, like an ape, that exists today because of her similar characteristics to //Homo//. By Riley Genua
 * Dan Johansen/ Lucy**

War has been around almost as long as people have. Some people think that war is a natural human tendency noting that evolution implemented an aggressive and violent nature in all humans. Others believe that humans are peaceful until conflict and competition corrupt the peaceful nature. The key point in deciding which is right would be through the observations of chimps. Jane Goodall in the 1970s observed war amongst the society of chimps. When groups secede from the society, chimps will track down these rebel groups and kill them. Although it seems clear cut that war is innate in all humans, questions come about such as what stresses could of caused this war? There is no true answer as to if war is man made or naturally human, but instead a relationship between natural human aggressiveness and cultural conflict. Both factors play a decision when warfare comes about.
 * War –> natural human tendency or cultural invention**

By Stephen Levy
 * Venus of Willendorf and Venus of Laussel**
 * The Venus of Willendorf is an artwork from the ice age period depicting a little fat female who has been interpreted to be a goddess,ruler, or other fertility fetish. A slightly more modern version of the Venus Willendorf is the Venus Laussel which is a cave painting depicting a fat women raising a horn containing food or drink. These artistic artifacts are important because they are some of the first known art works dating back to about 30,000 bce. These artworks provide a look back at what culture might have been like during the ice age. Based on the Willendorf it is fair to assume that their was a sense of religion and worship in the ancient societies. Modern indulgences such as feasts and festivals are shown in the Venus of Laussel. The Venus of Willendorf and the Venus of Laussel are primary sources that provide a look at what life may of been like in 30,000 bce.

 ** As defined by //The World: a History Text//, Ice-Age affluence is the relative prosperity of Ice-Age society as the result of abundant game and wild, edible plants. Surprisingly, during the Ice-Age, people were better nourished than most other populations in history. Industrialized societies were the only ones comparable. In fact, people during the Ice-Age ate as much as 3,000 calories a day, thanks to the massive amounts of animal body fat they were able to obtain and consume. Ice-Age affluence is so important to history because it provesthat humans were able to prosper throughout awful times. Back then, humans could hunt for an animal, kill it, intake large amounts of food, and ultimately lead a leisurely life. As Armesto quotes, “people really were like us, with the same kinds of minds and many of the same kinds of thoughts” (Armesto 20). It is important to learn about the human nature over time, and the Ice-Age affluence givesgreat insight to how humans lived through harsh times. Also, due to the posperity of societies during the Ice-Age, humans were able to make history and give insight to how things came along back then.
 * Ice-Age affluence**- Pages 19-20

As defined by //The World: a History Text//, material culture consists of the concrete objects that people create. Material culture provides valuable primary sources that offer clues as to how humans lived during the time period that the material culture comes from. This is important today because material culture allows historians to make assumptions as to how humans went about their lives through looking at how they dressed, what and how they ate, how they decorated their homes, how they were buried, ect. Unlike writing, material culture exists in all time periods in history. In the case of material culture from the Ice-Age, historians are able to infer many different ideas about society and culture back then. A prime example of how people went about their lives is through their houses. Some would use mammoth remains to make dome-like structures for homes. Through this, historians could infer that people who killed a mammoth might want to acquire the animal’s soul for strength or magical purposes. Other examples are exemplified through their use of symbols to represent different things. The symbols give insight to their ways of life. It is ultimately their way of writing. Clues of spiritual life are derived through traces of red ochre. It was applied in burials. Dead bodies were painted with ochre. Paintings from the Ice-Age are about as important as written manuscripts from other time periods. They give insight to the minds of people back then, moreover their opinions and ways of thinking. Without material culture, hisorians would be without key primary sources that tell the ways of life throughout history. By Harrison Genua
 * material culture –> insights it provides into Ice-Age society and culture?-** pages 20-22

//Homo sapiens //is the biological classification of contemporary humans. //Homo sapiens// is [|Latin] for “the wise human” or “the clever human.” The //Homo neanderthalensis // were considered almost as smart as we humans were; only the //Homo neanderthalensis// were supposedly existent at the equivalent time period for only about 100,000 years flanking the //Homo sapiens.//  They followed the same customs as we do today (burying the dead, eating the same foods, suggestion of a sense of religion, etc.) showing that they were gifted and intellectual creatures of their time, that is until 30,000 years ago when the species went astray. But because the two did not interact, we will never know the true cause of the failure of the Neanderthal to thrive as a species. · **//Homo sapiens //****<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">' migrations and peopling of the world **<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;"> The idea of migration and peopling the world is that the wider the //Homo sapiens// as a species ranged, the better the chances that multiple pockets would survive and thrive. If they stayed put, then they might have exhausted the resources, and gone the way of the Neanderthal.
 * //<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Homo Sapiens //****<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;"> and //Homo neanderthalensis// (Neanderthals) **<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">


 * Critical Question Breakdowns**<span style="border-collapse: collapse; font-family: arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">
 * **What methods or approaches do paleo-anthropologists and anthropologists use that differ from those of historians?**
 * 1) Research methods/approaches that paleo-anthropologists use.
 * 2) Research methods/approaches that anthropologists use.
 * 3) Research methods/approaches that historians use.
 * 4) Compare and contrast the methods of the anthropologists and paleo-anthropologists to those of historians.
 * 5) Report findings in response.
 * **What are the fundamental differences and overlaps between** //**Homo Sapiens**// **and** //**Homo neanderthalensis**//**?**
 * 1) Research the fundamentals of //Homo Sapiens.//
 * 2) Research the fundamentals of //Homo neanderthalensis.//
 * 3) Find differences and similarities/overlaps between these fundamentals
 * 4) Report these differences and overlaps in response
 * **How does the disagreement/debate over what ancestors do or do not constitute fully “human” reveal contemporary attitudes and rifts?**
 * 1) Research ancestors of humans
 * 2) Look up explanations of both sides of the debate
 * 3) Research contemporary rifts in society
 * 4) Make connections between this debate and others in today’s society
 * 5) Discuss these connections in response
 * **How does the tension and deep-seated conflict created over the issue of evolution reveal some of the methodological rifts between history and other disciplines?**
 * 1) Research background information about evolution.
 * 2) Research tension and conflict over evolution.
 * 3) Research history’s methods
 * 4) Research other disciplines’ methods.
 * 5) Analyze differences between history’s methods and other disciplines’ methods
 * 6) Analyze how the conflict over evolution reveals some of the methodological rifts between history and other disciplines
 * 7) Create a response to the question with the information you have found.
 * **How does Fernández-Armesto’s description of humans throughout the chapter (e.g on p. 9 “In this environment…”particular kind of habitat”; p. 14 “Creatures like us…”) reflect a different treatment and tone toward humans than the one typically found in history texts (and popular culture)?**
 * 1) Read and analyze Fernández-Armesto’s description of humans in the chapter.
 * 2) Research the view about humans displayed in history texts and popular culture
 * 3) Analyze the differences between the two opinions about the treatment and tone towards humans.
 * 4) Create a response to the question with the information you have found.
 * **What drove the great human migrations and how did this great migration of Homo Sapiens change the way in which human societies expanded, interacted with one another, and defined gender roles?**
 * 1) Research background information about the great human migration.
 * 2) Research what drove the great human migration
 * 3) Research how human societies expanded, interacted with one another, and defined gender roles at the time of the migration.
 * 4) Analyze how the great human migration influenced influenced these changes.
 * 5) Create a response to the question with the information you have found.
 * **How did Ice-Age art (and art in general) reflect the cultural habits and practices of humans that lived during this period?**
 * 1) Research Ice-Age art (and art in general).
 * 2) Research cultural habits and practices of people living in that period.
 * 3) Make connections between the two.
 * 4) Report findings.


 * ***How has the interpretation of the settlement and peopling of the New World changed, and what does this change reflect about the role contemporary beliefs play in the shaping of history?**
 * 1) Research earlier interpretations.
 * 2) Research contemporary beliefs.
 * 3) Consider the historical context of the eras, and how the happening of that time period influence the historians interpretations.
 * 4) Synthesize response.


 * **Why is the process of dating the peopling of the New World so difficult, and therefore, still unresolved?**
 * 1) Research attempts at dating the peopling of the New World.
 * 2) Research reasons why it’s a difficult task.
 * 3) Synthesize response.


 * **What characteristics most defined those groups of humans that remained foragers, and how did those characteristics differ from other post-Ice-Age groups?**
 * 1) Study humans that remained foragers.
 * 2) Study other post Ice-age groups that did not remain foragers.
 * 3) Distinguish the differing characteristics.
 * 4) Explain how these characteristics influenced the foragers.
 * 5) Explain how the differing characteristics influenced the non-foragers.