post-roman+world+test

assignment 1: 242-243, 251-252, 283-285, and 288-289

 * **Theodoric** - the Ostro-gothic king whose realm was typically hybrid. he ruled from 493-526 CE. Jenna Lee... STheodoric- addition, Theodoric is a prime example of the struggle of "barbaric" kings between sticking with their Germanic roots or becoming more Romanizedd and going back to the Roman ways of life. Theodoric's main advisor Boethius tried to Romanize him and this had an effect on him to a certain degree. An example of this inner struggle of Theodoric is in his tomb, it was the burial mound of Germanic king, but also had the style of a Roman aristocrat.Stephen Levy
 * **Byzantine Empire**-Byzantine Empire (eastern Roman Empire) got its name from “Byzantium”. Even though it managed to remain as a single state, it had no power in Rome. Emperors of Byzantine Empire gave up on re-conquest of the western provinces and focused on the struggle with Persia instead. Yunjae Sohn
 * **Justinian**-Emperor from 527 to 565. Justinian was the last emperor to adopt a grand strategy of imperial reunification, something that Eastern Europe needed at the time because they were distracted with the struggle with the Persians, therefore abandoning ambitions to reconquer the Western provinces. He gave equal importance to recovery in the west and defense and expansion in the east. He lost some supporters for the monarchy because of his tax policies, a great lawgiver even though he abused his lawgiving powers to break all the rules, built the Hagia Sophia twice, and because he thought big, he enlarged the empire by conquests. Under his rule, the performance of the Eastern Empire was more impressive than the transformation of the Western Empire. Also, they survived the Barbarian invasions. --Riley Genua
 * **Theodora**-Actress chosen by Justinian who counseled every policy and was the troubleshooter of every crisis, making courtiers angry. Even though she didn’t have Justinian’s power, her wisdom and kingship earned her a famous mosaic and portrait in the church of San Vitale at Ravenna in Italy. - Riley Genua
 * **Hagia Sophia**- means “holy wisdom.” It was built by Justinian in Constantinople to be the biggest church in the world, and when it fell down, he rebuilt it.-CallieS
 * **Constantinian Model**- conversion to a different idealogy or religion begins with a ruler.This model, In Christendom, prevailed for most of the Middle Ages. Almost every conversion of a nation or people at this time began with the conversion of a king.-CallieS
 * **Clovis** - Frankish chief who took over most of Gual (modern-day France) in the 480s CE. Jenna Lee
 * **Olof Skötkunung** - started minting coins with Christian symbols before the 1000s and by the time the Stephan of Hungary was corinated in 1001 it was the official religion of the country. Jenna Lee
 * **Vladimir**-Converted to Orthodox Christianity for political reasons; ensured survival of the religion in that area-Margaret Lee
 * **Rus**- The Rus were a pagan group of people under the rule of Vladimir, ruler of Kiev in what is today Ukraine. They used human sacrifices in their religion which led to the decision of converting to Orthodox Christianity. Jennifer Truong
 * **Pope Gregory the Great**-in the sixth century, he organized the defense of Rome against the Lombards, launched missions of spiritual reconquest to parts of western Europe that had been paganized, and reimposed on the western empire a kind of unity by corresponding with him, something that needed to have been done to make the western empire stronger. - Riley Genua
 * **Benedict of Nursia**- Benedict of Nursia is the rule of life for monks. It was most superior and universal compare to others. His principles were that quest for salvation in common and the subordination of all individual willfulness. He also banned extremes of mortification and sought a way to imitate paradise on Earth. Benedict’s campaign include rededication of pagan shrine of Jupiter to St.Martin and shrine of Apollo to John Baptist. These rededications disclose his practice of charity in refuge from the world. Yunjae Sohn
 * **Lombards**- Invaded Italy (568) from the North during the Justininan Wars. Jenna Lee
 * **Boethius**- was the chief minister of Theodoric. he was a Roman senator, not a Goth, who clung to the old order of the Roman Empire. he wrote the Consolation of Philosophy. Jenna Lee
 * **Sati** - the burning of a widow on her husbands funeral pyre in 510 CE. Jenna Lee

assignment 2: 252-258 and 270-272

 * **King Agilulf** - King of Lombards who invaded from the North during the Justininian Wars; the Lombards were barbarian invaders who attacked after the Romans and the Goths had exhausted each other. King Agilulf had a helmet with winged figures brandishing drinking horns of a traditional Germanic court with "victory" marked on their placards. Agilulf's cross was a wand of victory - a sign to conquer by. //Shree Bose//
 * ======**Arabs**- nomadic people-group out of which the Islamic faith came (through Muhammad); conquered Persia in the mid 600s and Rome in the early 700s-Margaret Lee======
 * **Muhammad**- Muhammad was born in 570 C.E. in Mecca, the center of the trade. He was the caravan manager until he was visited by Gabriel and received revelations from Gabriel in 610 C.E. His life was not that successful until he migrated to Madina in 622 C.E. In madina, the Islamic community grew significantly (mostly consisting Bedouins). Muhammad was both prophet and political leader in Madina (his successors were called caliph). He returns to Mecca in 630 C.E., make them surrender and convert them to Islam and dies in 632 C.E. Mohammad served as a connection between Islamic regions—he had ability to bring unity among the tribes and Bedouins. Yunjae Sohn
 * ======**Quran**-the holy text of the Islamic faith; written by Muhammad according to what he was supposedly told by God-Margaret Lee======
 * **Parthians** - Iranian dynasty that came to power after the death of Alexander the Great in the 300s BCE; favored the western regions of their empire and Mesopotamia. They were succeeded by the Sasanians as Persia's ruling dynasty. //Shree Bose//
 * **Sasanians**- They succeeded the Parthians as Persia's ruling dynasty from 226 C.E. They maintained their hostility toward Rome but made peace as a response to barbarian menace. The peace fell though and this allowed the Arabs to take over the Persian Empire and part of the Roman Empire from the 630s the 650s. Jennifer Truong
 * **Sharia-** literally translated as "the camel's way to water" was a religious discipline and law code of the state. The principles of law were unchangeable because they were revealed to the masters in the eighth and 9th centuries. The Sharia is an interpretation of Muhammad's tradition that are taken as divinly guided. The idea that the Sharia is both a religious and political law code may symbolize the dual nature of the caliph in the muslim culture as both the religious and political leader of the Islamic world. - Stephen Levy
 * **Caliph-** literally means the “successor” of the Prophet. The caliph is the supreme Islamic authority. According to Christians, the caliph was both pope and emperor. The problem of identifying who was caliph split Islam between rival claimants and incompatible methods of choosing a caliph within a generation of Muhammad’s death.-CallieS
 * **Shia -** meaning the "party" of Ali, believed that caliphate should a descendent of Muhammad's nephew, Ali. There existed a major division which still continues today between the Shia and the Sunni, who believe that any member of Muhammad's tribe could be the caliphate. Shiaism is now the minority however the conflicts have still multiplied. //Shree Bose//
 * ======**Sunni**- branch of Islam that believes that any member of Muhammad’s tribe can hold the office of caliphate; makes up majority of the population of Muslims-Margaret Lee======
 * **Jihad**- Arabic word that literally means striving. Muhammad used this word in 2 contexts: 1)to mean the inner struggle against evil that Muslims must wage for themselves. and 2) to denote real war fought against the enemies of Islam. These enemies have to be genuine enemies who “fight against you to the death.” Holy war can also be an appropriate translation for jihad because they both mean doing something being obedient to what are thought to be the Prophet’s commands and rewarded by the promise of martyrdom, extreme suffering due to a belief.-CallieS

__assignment 3: 275-276; 285-288; 312-314__
p275-276

> p285-288
 * **Islamization -** Islamization basically means the spread of Islam along the Silk Road and other important trade locations. Although Buddhism mainly dominated religion along the Silk Road, occasionally a Muslim merchant was able to convert his trading partners or a pagan ruler into Islamic faith. One story from Islamization is that a Muslim advised a king to convert to Islam during a terrible drought, and when he did, rain fell upon his lands. Jennie Yoon
 * **Theodosius-** He declared Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire. This lowered the amount of pagans in his empire. This made nobility and sanctity converged. Aristocrats became monks in monasteries so they started to resemble "noblemen's clubs". Jennifer Truong
 * **Church of the Sephulchre**-built on the site where Jesus had supposedly been buried. It was dwarfed by the Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa, which both symbolized the sacredness to Islam of what had been only a Christian and Jewish holy city. -Riley Genua
 * **Dome of the Rock**- Dome of the Rock was built by the caliph Abd al-Malik in order to proclaim Islam’s superiority to Christianity in the late 7th century to dwarf the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Holy Sepulchre was build where Jesus had supposedly been buried while Muslim built the Dome of the Rock on the place where Prophet Muhammad supposedly ascended to paradise. Yunjae Sohn
 * **al-Aqsa** - mosque built in Jerusalem in the last 7th century. Like the Dome of the Rock, the al-Aqsa symbolized the sacredness to Islam in what was the "holy city" to both Christians and Jews - Jerusalem. //Shree Bose//
 * ======**Jerusalem**- site of religious significance and therefore the destination of many Christians who wished to make a pilgrimage but were hindered by Muslims, making it one of the causes of the Crusades-Margaret Lee======

p312-314
 * **Sahel**- The Sahel is an African grassland that encompassed parts of what was then known as Ghana. The Sahel provided a nice environmental mosaic for the Islamic world and was the farthest southwestern stretch of the Islamic world.- Stephen Levy
 * **Cordova**- Cordova was the capital of Muslim Spain in the mid-eighth century under Abd al-Rahman. It had a garden holding exotic plants with fields for cutting and seeds from abroad. Jennifer Truong
 * **Abd al-Rahman** - was ruler of Musilm Spain in the 8th century. By 10th century Cordova was his capital and it had a special garden growing exotic plants. Jenna Lee
 * **al-Mahdi** - Sent Yahya ibn Khalid to India to study medicinal drugs between 775 and 785. His order was representative of rulers hiring agronomists to manage their gardens and enhance their plant collections. //Shree Bose//
 * **Yahya ibn Khalid** - led a mission to India to study medicinal drugs between 775 and 785 under the caliph al-Mahdi. His mission was one of the examples of rulers encouraging the introductions of exotic plants in their gardens - for aesthetic beauty to their estates, medicinal properties, and to provide food. //Shree Bose//

__assignment 4: 374-377, 381-383, 373-377__
 * ======T**urkic Peoples/Seljuk Turks**-people who initially began to attack and take over the Muslim world but soon were made a part of it, converting to the religion and culture; example of how the Islamic world absorbed attackers in order to make itself stronger-Margaret Lee======
 * **Bukhara-** in Modern Uzbekistan. It was conquered by the Seljuk Turks and became its capital and headquarters. in the early 1000’s CE. -CallieS
 * **Mahmud of Ghazni** was a self-appointed guard of Islam who took over for the calif in the 1050s CE. Jennie Yoon
 * **Magyars and Bulgars**(parallels to Islam’s relationship to nomadic invaders?)- Christendom usually dealt with steppelander threats by trying to fight with them or buy them off. The Magyars and Bulgars, who settled in Hungary and Bulgaria, were the only exceptions. They were the only cases in which Europe successfully absorbed steppeland invaders. This parallels to Islam’s relationship to nomadic invaders because Islam successfully absorbed the nomadic invaders, which makes the two relationships very similar.-CallieS

p381-383
 * **al-Andalus**- Region that covered most of the Iberian Penninsula, was a sprawling state with a structure hard to hold together and frontiers hard to defend. The region, which stretched from the Tagus to Duero rivers, had few of the original Muslim settlers. The declining Muslim population and power had trouble controlling the increasingly large Christian populations. The enviornment of the al-Andalus generated it great wealth, with the agricultural surplus of rich soils enabled luxuries such as ivory works,jewels, palace buildings, and lavish gardens to come about. Stephen Levy
 * **Almanzor-**
 * **Almoravids**- Almoravids are the warrior ascetics from North Africa who helped the Spanish Muslim kingdoms. Dedicated to holy war, they emerged as an alliance of pastoral bands from Sahara. Almoravids had strong army with a state that spanned the Sahara. They drove the Christians back and preserved most of the peninsula for Islam. Almoravids not only helped expanding the Muslim world north wise, but also south wise—especially Ghana. Yunjae Sohn
 * **Sanhaja**- The Sanhaja were people whose territory covered most of the Saharan desert. In 1040, the Sanhaja went to conquer Morocco united in the cause of jihad. Jennifer Truong
 * **Almohads-** The “people of the oneness of God”– conquered Almoravids that were corrupted with their luxury in 1140. They also invade Spain from North Africa and succeeds in propping up the Islamic frontier. Yunjae Sohn
 * **Soninke**- The kingdom of Soninke, a black pagan kingdom, was attacked by the Almoravids, especially Ghana (the capital of the Soninke kingdom) because it was gold-rich and controlled access to the routes of the trans-Saharan trade where gold was exchanged for salt. They held them off until 1076 when Kumbi Saleh fell. Islam was then firmly planted there. Ghana became known as a model Islamic state, whose king revered the true caliph in Baghdad and dispensed justice with exemplary openness. Eventually, pagan invaders took over the Soninke state and destroyed Kumbi but because Islam had spread so widely, Islam retained its foothold south of the Sahara desert for the rest of the Middle Ages. Jennifer Truong

__ID Terms pg 366-69, 377-81__

 * **Pilgrimage**- A religious journey that would be taken, in the case of the Christians to Jerusalem, and Muslims Mecca. It was supposed to be a peaceful journey building religious faith, but as the traveled areas became more dangerous the expeditions became armed. These led in part to the religious frenzy of the crusades.
 * **Holy War-** Originally a Muslim concept a holy war was considered to be a penance or at least morally ok. This was picked up by crusaders who wanted to fight but needed justification. It was a main factor leading to the Crusades and massive church support behind them.
 * **Pope Urban 2-** Pope Urban II was the first and really only person to build a substantial and well organized enough force to lead a successful crusade in the 1090s. They were actually able to capture Jerusalem in 1099 and held it for a time until the balance between Christians and Muslims was upset causing a rebellion.
 * **Crusader State-** These states were the governments setup by invading crusaders after they captured Jerusalem and the Levant area. the were supported by Italian merchants and were able to survive for decent period of time until the Muslims were fed up and developed a unified force against them.
 * **Saladin-** Saladin finished the reconquest of the Crusader States initially started by Zangi and prevented further crusades. Above this he was able to reunify Islamic Unity.
 * **Fatimid Caliphate-** This was the major caliphate representing the Shiites. Its destruction by Saladin ended any significant challenges to Sunni control by the Shia. The fall restored uniformity to Islamic uniformity, keeping the Shia a minority.

Material Addressed during class on 12/01/09: __Critical Questions__:
 * 1) How did the conversion of the Turks affect the Islamic world? (need to define categories)
 * 2) What influenced the growth in the Islamic community in the Iberian Peninsula?
 * 3) What role did the Almoravids play in the invasion of the Spanish Muslim kingdoms?
 * 4) How did the Turkish hostility have the potential to shatter the Islamic world?
 * 5) Compare the ways in which the Turkish invasion affected the Islamic world versus the ways in which the North African invasions affected the Islamic world?

__Geography Questions__:
 * 1) What body of water did the Muslims cross to get to the Iberian Peninsula? -- Strait of Gibraltar
 * 2) What two areas provided Islam with military aid during the 9th and 10th c.? -- Asian Steppeland and Saharan Desert
 * 3) How far does the entire Muslim Empire extend east to west? -- Asian steppeland to the Iberian Peninsula
 * 4) What is the area of the Iberian Peninsula held by the Muslims called? -- Al-Andalus
 * 5) Where are the Almoravids from? -- N. African Sahara

__Key Individuals and their Contributions__:
 * 1) Mahmud of Ghazni-

__Key Groups and their Contributions__:
 * 1) Turkic Peoples/Seljuk Turks
 * 2) Almoravids-
 * 3) Magyars and Bulgars (parallels to Islam's relationship to nomadic invaders?)
 * 4) Almohads - conquer Almoravids in the 1140s

__assignment 5: 358-366__
Pope Gregory VII implemented the Gregorian Reform, which led to the creation of laws. This creation of laws led to the creation of heretics, or people who did not practiced as the church commanded. Gregory VII demanded new standards of clerical behavior and lay awareness of the faith. He wanted to root out profanity in the church. Saint Denis was a monastery near Paris. Abbot Suger, wanting to build a grand church, wanted to fell large trees in a forest. The forest was sacred to pagans, and they believed that goddesses lived in trees. What Abbot Suger did shows a grander movement in Europe, or expansion inwards. Europe, isolated by land and water barriers, found new ways to expand. People chopped down forests and drained bogs to create more living space. The Cistercians was a monastic order that advocated simplicity. Cistercians built monasteries in the outer reaches of Europe, in deserts where habitation was sparse and the nature, hostile. Cistercian activity was frantic. They razed woodlands to make "rough places plain", since that is one of the conditions that the Bible specifies for the end of the world. Cistercians sometimes drove people from their lands in their desire to escape secular society. The Hanseatic League was a network of unified ports that connected the North Sea and the Baltic coasts. Europe, instead of expanding outward, expanded inward. The creation of the Hanseatic League connected Europeans while also promoting trade. Exchange across vast distances made geographical specialization and genuine industrialization possible. Otto I was a German ruler who called himself the Roman Emperor. He felt that his empire served the whole of Christendom, and he needed to guard its frontier from pagans. The commune was a civic governing body of a town in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries. The power moved from kingdoms and kings to towns and communes. A commune was composed of townspeople. A commune was based on the Roman Republic. The earlier kingdoms based themselves on the Roman empire, while towns based themselves on the Roman Republic. Throughout the years, many towns and kingdoms tried to emulate Rome, although with communes, the power is centering on the people instead of on a king and his empire.
 * Pope Gregory VII**-Francesca Roberts
 * Abbot Suger of Saint-Denis**-Francesca Roberts
 * Cistercians**-Francesca Roberts
 * Hanseatic League**-Francesca Roberts
 * Otto I**-Francesca Roberts
 * Commune**-Francesca Roberts